Sustainable electrochemical nano-sensors for rapid monitoring of ‘gold standard’ neuromuscular blocking agent used during anesthesia: a comprehensive green, blue, and white assessment

Abstract

Rocuronium bromide (ROC), the gold-standard neuromuscular blocking agent, is extensively used during general anesthesia. Accurate therapeutic monitoring of ROC is crucial to preventing the risks of postoperative paralysis and impaired respiratory function. Consequently, there is an urgent need for a miniaturized, sensitive and rapid analytical technique capable of real-time monitoring. In this study, we introduce portable, solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs) for the direct determination of ROC in human plasma. Three nano-sensors were constructed on a carbon paste/MWCNT platform. Sensor 1 served as the unmodified control (without incorporation of ionophore or nanoparticles), whereas sensor 2 incorporated β-cyclodextrin and ZnO nanoparticles, and sensor 3 integrated β-cyclodextrin and mesoporous graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄). These nanomaterials (ZnO and g-C₃N₄) significantly improve sensor sensitivity, and the charge transfer at the interface. Additionally, the β-cyclodextrin ionophore enhances sensor selectivity and membrane elasticity. The fabricated modified nano-sensors are validated according to ICH guidelines and showed wide linearity range between the negative logarithm of ROC activity and the measured potential, with detection limits of 1.3 × 10−7 M for sensor 2 and 6.3 × 10−8 M for sensor 3. The nano-sensors were successfully applied for the direct determination of ROC in human plasma and pharmaceutical formulations without sample pretreatment. The green, blue and white assessments confirm the excellent green character, the high applicability and the sustainability of the developed nano-sensors. By facilitating real-time therapeutic monitoring, these sensors show promises for point-of-care applications, to improve patient safety and optimize anesthesia management in critical care settings.