Nanomaterial-enhanced voltammetric sensor for concurrent monitoring of aprepitant and apixaban in plasma toward precision medicine and in pharmaceutical analysis

Abstract

The growing demand for precision medicine has driven the development of nanomaterial-modified electrodes for applications in this field. This work reports novel voltammetric platforms based on functionalized carbon paste electrodes (CPEs) with engineered nanomaterials for the concurrent determination of aprepitant (APR) and apixaban (APX) in human plasma, as well as the first voltammetric assay for APR in pharmaceutical capsules. Monitoring both drugs is clinically relevant because APR may inhibit APX metabolism, increasing bleeding risk during coadministration. For simultaneous plasma analysis, a CPE was modified with 2% zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and 1% carbon dots (CDs) synthesized from pepper seeds, a sustainable green precursor. This nanocomposite-modified sensor achieved linear ranges of 0.28–1.31 μM (0.15–0.70 μg/mL) for APR and 0.02–1.09 μM (0.01–0.50 μg/mL) for APX. For individual determination of APR in capsules, a CPE incorporating 1% multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and 1% CDs provided a linear range of 0.19–2.06 μM (0.10–1.10 μg/mL). All proposed methods were validated according to international guidelines. Furthermore, the greenness of the analytical procedures was systematically evaluated, confirming their environmental compatibility and alignment with sustainable chemistry principles. The developed sensors offer a promising step toward a precision medicine strategy for therapeutic drug monitoring and risk assessment of drug-drug interactions, with potential for integration into portable diagnostic devices. In addition, they demonstrate valuable applicability in pharmaceutical quality control laboratories.